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Italy Pisa The Leaning Tower
The Leaning Tower is just one of the buildings forming part of the Cathedral Group situated in the heart of Pisa. The group includes a campanile (bell tower), better known as the Leaning Tower; a cathedral; a baptistery and a cemetery.
The first building to be constructed was the cathedral which was begun in 1063 after the Pisans victory over the Saracens at the naval battle of Palermo. Started in the Romanesque style (Romanesque means in the Roman Manner) of Architecture which can be seen on the lower levels, the upper levels changed to the Gothic style which was replacing Romanesque architecture across Europe at that time; although the alternate red and white bands of marble show Islamic influence. The cathedral was completed in 1272.
Construction on the baptistery began in 1153 in the Romanesque style although - like the cathedral - transformed to the Gothic style in 1277 by Nicola and Giovanni Pisano who are known for their Pulpits in the baptistery and the cathedral. The baptistery was finally completed in 1363. It is Italy’s largest baptistery and is dedicated to John the Baptist. Although it is not as pronounced as the famous tower, it too has a lean.
Situated behind the Cathedral is the cemetery, which consists of a rectangular loggia with Gothic galleries which are paved with 600 tombstones. Built between 1273 and 1283, legend says it was built where the Crusaders placed the soil they had brought from the Holy Land.
The construction of the tower commenced in 1173 following a bequest and a period of prosperity and military success in Pisa, although due to the wars with Genoa, Lucca and Florence work was interrupted on a number of occasions. In 1178 it was halted at the third level when it was noticed that the tower was beginning to sink. This was due to the poor quality soil - which is highly compressible - and the fact that the foundations only went down 3 metres. An attempt was made to straighten the tower by building up on the lower side when work resumed in 1180 which resulted in one side of the floor being higher than the other giving the tower a slight curve. The tower was completed in 1350 although the bell-chamber was added in 1372. The tower contains 7 bells which are musically tuned; the largest was added in 1655 and weighs three and a half tons. The interior of the structure is of stones and mortar with an exterior covering of marble. A spiral staircase of 294 steps, one meter wide, sits between the inner and outer walls.
The lean of the tower has progressively increased over the years from 1.63 metres in 1360 to 5.2 metres in 1997 and without stabilisation the tower was likely to collapse within a couple of decades. The normal method of stabilisation would be to underpin the foundations by inserting new ones below the existing ones or by grouting, these were ruled out as they had been tried in the past and in 1995 work carried out made things worse when it lurched during ground freezing. It was decided, therefore, to remove soil from underneath the higher side and reduce the lean that way. This was done by placing 870 metric tons of lead weights on the north side of the tower to helped stop additional movement. The structure was then braced and supported by steel cables tied to ground anchors to ensure it did not topple during work. Special drills were then used to remove small amounts of soil from under the higher side over several months; this caused the tower to slip back slowly into a more upright position. The final operation was to insert a concrete ring around its base. Work was completed in 2008 and the tower then opened again for visitors. View in Google Street View and Google Earth In order to play the other videos press the speaker icon above to switch off this music.
Florence The Santa Maria del Fiore, in Florence is better known simply as the “Duomo”, which means Cathedral. Although renowned for being one of the lasting symbols of the Italian Renaissance (1400 - 1600), the Duomo actually started out as Gothic structure. Florence was the centre of the Renaissance (Rebirth) and led the way in Renaissance architecture until 1490 when it became a Republic and the city fell upon hard times. The Duomo consists of three buildings, the baptistery, the cathedral and the bell tower. The first of the three to be built was the baptistery which was constructed on the site of a Roman temple. It is known to be one of the oldest buildings in Florence and is thought to date from the 11th century though the exact date is not known. The gilded bronze door facing south was made in 1336 by Andrea Pisano while the doors facing north and east - known with the name of Gate of “Paradise” - were made by Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1427 and in 1452. The baptistery has a magnificent mosaic ceiling depicting the Last Judgment which dates from the 13th century. The construction of the cathedral began in 1296 by Arnolfo di Cambio although he died before it was completed leaving it without a dome. It is relatively easy to erect a dome using formwork for support, but Florence was unwilling to pay for this so they wanted it doing without, consequently they held a competition to find a suitable design, this was won by Filippo Brunelleschi who devised a way of doing that by producing a double skin. His dome consisted of two layers, an inner dome and an outer one to protect it from the weather and give it a more pleasing external form. It consisted of circular profiles of the ribs and rings, the spaces between the ribs and rings being spanned by the inner and outer shells. These were constructed of stone for the first 7 metres and brick above this height. The ribs – stone arches - are 7 feet thick at the base and tapering to 5 feet, which meet at an open stone compression ring at the top. The weight is displaced down and across by the use of bricks in a herringbone bond which work like bookends holding books in place. Five chains were placed around the circumference and were built into the brickwork as it progressed upwards to withhold the lateral force of the dome and prevent it from thrusting outwards. Finished around 1367, the Cathedral was covered by coloured marble like the Baptistery, with the exception of the facade that remained unfinished until 1887 when the 20 year project by Emilio de Fabris completed it in the style of the Gothic Revival. This bell tower was started in 1334 by Giotto di Bondone. He was succeeded in 1343 by Andrea Pisano - who produced the South Doors of the Baptistery. Pisano continued the construction of the bell tower, following Giotto’s design of a high slender structure with a square base and sides of just over 47ft. Pisano was followed by Francesco Talenti who built the top three levels, completing the bell tower in 1359: Although he did change the original design of Giotto by not building a spire, thus reduced its’ planned height from 400ft to 277ft. View in Google Street View and Google Earth
Pompeii Dating back to the 6th century BC, Pompeii has connections to the Samnites, Etruscans, Greeks and Phoenicians, although it is most famous as a thriving Roman town and harbour destroyed by the volcano Mount Vesuvius when it erupted on the 24th August 79 AD.
Prior to the eruption, the area around Vesuvius had been experiencing minor earth tremors and there had been a significant earth quake about 17 years before so although concerned no one understood the event that was to occur or its significance.
The eruption, which occurred over a number of days, covered Pompeii with over 4 metres of ash and pumice. The roofs of the houses weren’t designed to withstand the weight that was imposed on them resulting in their collapse, although domed buildings such as the baths were able to withstand the weight and remained intact.
Although pumice is a rock it is very light, and would do little damage if some protection is used, people were, therefore, able to escape, something that thousands of people did in fact do. The several hundred people who did stay were to meet an agonising death, something that was shown by the plaster casts moulds taken of those who died when their bodies were covered by ash which solidified. The pouring of plaster into the spaces formed by where their bodies produced a cast showing the position they were in when they died as well as their features and expressions.
The sudden abandonment and covering preserved the town which was to remain lost until it was rediscovered during the excavations for a water channel in 1599. Over the years much of the site has been excavated although a large proportion has still to reveal its secrets. It has, however, provided a time capsule which has provided a detailed insight into Roman life in the 1st century.
Today Pompeii is situated several miles from the sea but in the 1st century it was a thriving trading port. Visitors today enter the site by the Marina Gate one of seven of the town. The road from the gate leads to the forum with Mount Vesuvius in the background. Within the Forum are: the Basilica, Temple of Apollo, Temple of Vespasian, Temple of Jupiter and the arches of Tiberius and Caligula. Through the arches visitors enter the commercial and residential districts and are able to wander around the paved with large blocks of stone. They are bordered by curbs and pedestrian walkways, raised stones were placed at regular intervals in order that pedestrians could cross the streets without getting themselves dirty from any water and Sewage.
Shops and houses as well as the public amenities and temples can all be visited. The graffiti can be seen on the walls and written evidence provides details of the life of its inhabitants. Many artefacts and everyday items can also be seen and the discovery of a number of skeletons of people who sought shelter is providing a lot of information about their lives and diets. A number of bakeries and shops existed throughout the city providing fast food, as generally the rich ate at home while the poor ate out. Shops selling all types of goods have been found, many with traces of those goods which can indicate the agricultural production of the area, the goods imported and the diet of the people.
An important part of Roman life was the baths and it was a Roman custom to visit the baths daily, both for cleanliness and to conduct business or meet friends. Entertainment was also important and Pompeii had theatres, an amphitheatre and gymnasiums. It also had a number of brothels, something that was an accepted part of Roman life.
Pompeii had some very rich residents with their house being lavishly decorated with exquisitely crafted mosaics and painted frescos: Many of the wall paintings still being extremely vibrant. A number of the houses are particularly famous: the House of Faun, so named due the statue of a dancing faun - a figure from Roman Mythology having the body of a man and the horns, ears, tail, and legs of a goat. The Tragic Poet’s House contains a mosaics which is now commonly used as a beware of the dog sign. The House of Vettius belonged to two wealthy merchants. It contains some beautiful paintings (still in their original positions). Much of what is known of Roman painting in the period 300 BC to AD 79 is based on the well-preserved discoveries made in houses at Pompeii.
Pompeii is one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. View in Google Street View and Google Earth
Herculaneum
A succession of surges buried the city's buildings from the bottom up preserving their structure and the objects within. The intense heat extracted water and carbonised the organic material. The depth of the layers (20 metres) protected the town until it was discovered during the course of a well being dug in 1709. Excavations began in 1738, but were curtailed when efforts were moved to Pompeii, which presented an easier task.
Over the years the excavations at Herculaneum were undertaken in stages, with periods during which no work was undertaken. In 1927 work commenced again, and is continuing until the present day. Nevertheless, only about 25% of the town is believed to have been excavated to date. The difficulty of excavation results from the hardness of the layers, (which solidified) and also the fact that the town of Ercolano is situated over the ruins, although some urban clearance is now taking place in the modern town, in order to expose more of the archaeological remains.
Herculaneum was a resort for the wealthy and contained many elegant residences complete with decorations as well as the businesses and facilities to provide for them. These consist of bakeries, wine merchants, baths and temples - all of which provide an insight into the lives of the residents. Part of the forum is visible, although most has still to be excavated.
The area which today is Venice was first settled after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and grew significantly due to the influx of refugees after the invasion of Northern Italy by the Lombards in 568. Although subject to the Byzantine Empire it gradually gained autonomy and in the 7th century the figure of a Doge was introduced to administer the area and who was to become the supreme authority of the Republic of Venice. In 1204 Venice was part of the Fourth Crusade, which seized Constantinople thus enabling them to obtain considerable plunder from the city including the Winged Lion of St. Mark, which was to become the symbol of Venice. A period of prosperity followed leading to the emergence of Venice as a great naval power.
The first building on the site of the Doge’s Palace was a wooden stockade constructed in 814 AD comprising of watch towers, drawbridge and moat. This was destroyed in 976 AD during a civil uprising though was rebuilt. In the early 14th century the fort was no longer required so was replaced with a palace which was to be the Doge’s residence. It was also the venue for its law courts and administration and - until its relocation across the Bridge of Sighs - it was also the city jail. It remained the heart of the Republic of Venice until 1797 and the Napoleonic occupation of the city.
The architectural style of the Doge's Palace is referred to as Venetian Gothic, as it adapts northern Gothic styles to the ground conditions of the area. Tall arches, steeples and towers were prone to subsidence and as buildings needed to have piled foundations sunk into the mud of the Lagoon, buildings tended to be low, squat structures. The palace itself was constructed in two phases. The eastern wing, on the Rio del Palazzo, was constructed between 1301-40, while the western wing, on the Piazetta, was added between 1340 and 1450.
The Porta della Carta (Paper gate), the main entrance, was created in 1438 as a link between the Palace and the Basilica and is an excellent example of Venetian Gothic architecture. It got its’ name from the decrees nailed here for the public to see or from the people who would wait here to hand over petitions or requests. The doorway is surrounded by figures while above it is the Doge Fransesco Foscari kneeling before the Lion of St Mark which symbolizes that the individual bows to the power of the State. The sculptures are 19th century copies of the original which was destroyed in 1797 during Napoleons occupation of the city.
On entry the interior courtyard incorporates a mixture of Gothic and renaissance styles. The eastern facade, which was rebuilt following a fire in the middle of the 16th century, incorporates a flight of stairs, known as the "Scala dei giganti" (Staircase of the Giants), which lead to the state apartments and the Doge's private quarters on the second floor. The stairway acquired its name because of the two large statues of Mars and Neptune by Jacopo Sansovino erected in 1565 which are symbolic of Venice’s power on land and sea. It was at the top of the staircase that the Doge was crowned.
The palace is preserved as a museum, but unlike most museums the paintings were created especially to decorate the palace and not added later; consequently the palace’s interior walls and ceilings are decorated with magnificent works of art all of which give the palace an aura of magnificence and beauty. Many of the rooms are open to the public although photography is restricted. The Chancellery, naval and censor's offices are located on the ground floor. The Golden Staircase, built in 1549, was reserved for the use of Magistrates and important people and leads to the State and Doge’s Apartments and the Square Entrance Hall: It is decorated with works of many of the great artists of the time.
The Grand Council Chamber, built between 1340-1355, is the largest and most spectacular room and is located on the second floor. The Chamber is 54 metres in length and runs almost the entire length of the southern waterfront facade. It was the Grand Council that elected the Doge and appointed the senate. This vast chamber was formerly the meeting place of the one thousand or so nobles who formed the ruling elite of the Venetian Republic. The full width of one wall of the chamber is covered by Tintoretto's "Paradise", the world's largest oil-on-canvass painting (71 feet by 23 feet) which replaced paintings by Bellini and Titan destroyed by fire in 1588. Also on the 2nd floor are the armoury which contains over 2,200 weapons and suits of armour mostly from the 15 – 16th century and the map room.
On the 3rd floor is the Sala del Collegio, where foreign ambassadors were received; The Council of Ten, the government ministers; the Bussola Chamber, the room where citizens could submit complaints against officials; and the Inquisitor's Room.
The Doge’s Palace has something for everyone, it is a beautiful building with beautiful décor, paintings and exhibits, and is a must to visit in Venice.
Located on a peninsular near Cagliari, the capital of the island of Sardinia, Nora was established, according to legend, by the mythological hero Norax the son of Hermes the messenger of the gods. It is believed to be the first town founded in Sardinia when it was settled by the ancient Sherden, a sea people who habited the Mediterranean region in the second millennium BC and the Nuraghic people. Later it was colonization by the Phoenicians and then dominated by Carthage (Punic times) until it came under Roman control: In 238 BC it was chosen as the capital of the Roman province of Sardinia.
Throughout its’ history Nora was an important trading town due its three natural protected harbours, which could be used according to the conditions of the wind and sea. It became a major port, also due to its location, in the middle of the routes connecting the major ports of the Mediterranean. The city prospered for about 1500 years, becoming one of the most important cities on the south coast of Sardinia. It went into decline from the 4th century AD and was abandoned during the 7th or 8th century due to the continued incursions of pirates from North Africa and the Vandals.
A significant part of the town of Nora has still to be excavated as some is on land belonging to the Italian military while other parts are now submerged under the sea. The parts of the town that have been excavated are an open-air museum. This includes the remains of four thermal baths (with some beautiful mosaics); a theatre (occasionally used during the summer for concerts) which dates back to the 2nd century AD and still exhibits large amphora used to create sound effects; also excavated is an amphitheatre as well as small houses and villas. Recently the forum, or agora, has been uncovered. The remains of both Punic and Roman fortifications are still evident and the excavated buildings contain the remains from Punic houses and shrines, the temple dedicated to the goddess Tanit and a partially preserved necropolis. Remains from the Roman period include houses, including one with an atrium with a beautiful mosaic. It also contains well preserved paved streets and the systems for the delivery of water and the removal of waste water.
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